Protein kinases constitute a large family of structurally related enzymes that are responsible for the control of a wide variety of signal transduction processes within the cell (Hardie, G. and Hanks, S. (1995) The Protein Kinase Facts Book. I and II, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.). The kinases may be categorized into families by the substrates they phosphorylate (e.g., protein-tyrosine, protein-serine/threonine, lipids, etc.). Sequence motifs have been identified that generally correspond to each of these kinase families (e.g., Hanks, S. K., Hunter, T., FASEB 1, 9:576-596 (1995); Knighton, et al., Science, 253:407-414 (1991); Hiles, et al., Cell, 70:419-429 (1992); Kunz, et al., Cell, 73:585-596 (1993); Garcia-Bustos, et al., EMBO J., 13:2352-2361 (1994)).
Protein kinases may be characterized by their regulation mechanisms. These mechanisms include, for example, autophosphorylation, transphosphorylation by other kinases, protein-protein interactions, protein-lipid interactions, and protein-polynucleotide interactions. An individual protein kinase may be regulated by more than one mechanism.
Kinases regulate many different cell processes including, but not limited to, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, motility, transcription, translation and other signalling processes, by adding phosphate groups to target proteins. These phosphorylation events act as molecular on/off switches that can modulate or regulate the target protein biological function. Phosphorylation of target proteins occurs in response to a variety of extracellular signals (hormones, neurotransmitters, growth and differentiation factors, etc.), cell cycle events, environmental or nutritional stresses, etc. The appropriate protein kinase functions in signalling pathways to activate or inactivate (either directly or indirectly), for example, a metabolic enzyme, regulatory protein, receptor, cytoskeletal protein, ion channel or pump, or transcription factor. Uncontrolled signalling due to defective control of protein phosphorylation has been implicated in a number of diseases, including, for example, inflammation, cancer, allergy/asthma, diseases and conditions of the immune system, diseases and conditions of the central nervous system, and angiogenesis.
Apoptosis or programmed cell death is an important physiological process which removes cells no longer required by an organism. The process is important in early embryonic growth and development allowing the non-necrotic controlled breakdown, removal and recovery of cellular components. The removal of cells by apoptosis is also important in the maintenance of chromosomal and genomic integrity of growing cell populations. There are several known checkpoints in the cell growth cycle at which DNA damage and genomic integrity are carefully monitored. The response to the detection of anomalies at such checkpoints is to arrest the growth of such cells and initiate repair processes. If the damage or anomalies cannot be repaired then apoptosis is initiated by the damaged cell in order to prevent the propagation of faults and errors. Cancerous cells consistently contain numerous mutations, errors or rearrangements in their chromosomal DNA. It is widely believed that this occurs in part because the majority of tumours have a defect in one or more of the processes responsible for initiation of the apoptotic process. Normal control mechanisms cannot kill the cancerous cells and the chromosomal or DNA coding errors continue to be propagated. As a consequence restoring these pro-apoptotic signals or suppressing unregulated survival signals is an attractive means of treating cancer.
The signal transduction pathway containing the enzymes phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), PDK1 and PKB amongst others, has long been known to mediate increased resistance to apoptosis or survival responses in many cells. There is a substantial amount of data to indicate that this pathway is an important survival pathway used by many growth factors to suppress apoptosis. The enzymes of the PI3K family are activated by a range of growth and survival factors e.g. EGF, PDGF and through the generation of polyphosphatidylinositols, initiates the activation of the downstream signalling events including the activity of the kinases PDK1 and protein kinase B (PKB) also known as akt. This is also true in host tissues, e.g. vascular endothelial cells as well as neoplasias. PKB is a protein ser/thr kinase consisting of a kinase domain together with an N-terminal PH domain and C-terminal regulatory domain. The enzyme PKBalpha (akt1) itself is phosphorylated on Thr 308 by PDK1 and on Ser 473 by a kinase referred to as PDK2, whereas PKBbeta (akt2) is phosphorylated on Thr 309 and on Ser 474, and PKBgamma (akt3) is phosphorylated on Thr 305 and on Ser 472.
At least 10 kinases have been suggested to function as a Ser 473 kinase including mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase-activated protein kinase-2 (MK2), integrin-linked kinase (ILK), p38 MAP kinase, protein kinase Calpha (PKCalpha), PKCbeta, the NIMA-related kinase-6 (NEK6), the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), the double-stranded DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNK-PK), and the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) gene product. Available data suggest that multiple systems may be used in cells to regulate the activation of PKB. Full activation of PKB requires phosphorylation at both sites whilst association between PIP3 and the PH domain is required for anchoring of the enzyme to the cytoplasmic face of the lipid membrane providing optimal access to substrates.
Activated PKB in turns phosphorylates a range of substrates contributing to the overall survival response. Whilst we cannot be certain that we understand all of the factors responsible for mediating the PKB dependent survival response, some important actions are believed to be phosphorylation and inactivation of the pro-apoptotic factor BAD and caspase 9, phosphorylation of Forkhead transcription factors e.g. FKHR leading to their exclusion from the nucleus, and activation of the NfkappaB pathway by phosphorylation of upstream kinases in the cascade.
In addition to the anti-apoptotic and pro-survival actions of the PKB pathway, the enzyme also plays an important role in promoting cell proliferation. This action is again likely to be mediated via several actions, some of which are thought to be phosphorylation and inactivation of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor of p21Cip1/WAF1, and phosphorylation and activation of mTOR, a kinase controlling several aspects of cell size, growth and protein translation.
The phosphatase PTEN which dephosphorylates and inactivates polyphosphatidyl-inositols is a key tumour suppressor protein which normally acts to regulate the PI3K/PKB survival pathway. The significance of the PI3K/PKB pathway in tumourigenesis can be judged from the observation that PTEN is one of the most common targets of mutation in human tumours, with mutations in this phosphatase having been found in ˜50% or more of melanomas (Guldberg et al 1997, Cancer Research 57, 3660-3663) and advanced prostate cancers (Cairns et al 1997 Cancer Research 57, 4997). These observations and others suggest that a wide range of tumour types are dependent on the enhanced PKB activity for growth and survival and would respond therapeutically to appropriate inhibitors of PKB.
There are 3 closely related isoforms of PKB called alpha, beta and gamma, which genetic studies suggest have distinct but overlapping functions. Evidence suggests that they can all independently play a role in cancer. For example PKB beta has been found to be over-expressed or activated in 10-40% of ovarian and pancreatic cancers (Bellacosa et al 1995, Int. J. Cancer 64, 280-285; Cheng et al 1996, PNAS 93, 3636-3641; Yuan et al 2000, Oncogene 19, 2324-2330), PKB alpha is amplified in human gastric, prostate and breast cancer (Staal 1987, PNAS 84, 5034-5037; Sun et al 2001, Am. J. Pathol. 159, 431-437) and increased PKB gamma activity has been observed in steroid independent breast and prostate cell lines (Nakatani et al 1999, J. Biol. Chem. 274, 21528-21532).
The PKB pathway also functions in the growth and survival of normal tissues and may be regulated during normal physiology to control cell and tissue function. Thus disorders associated with undesirable proliferation and survival of normal cells and tissues may also benefit therapeutically from treatment with a PKB inhibitor. Examples of such disorders are disorders of immune cells associated with prolonged expansion and survival of cell population leading to a prolonged or up regulated immune response. For example, T and B lymphocyte response to cognate antigens or growth factors such as interferon gamma activates the PI3K/PKB pathway and is responsible for maintaining the survival of the antigen specific lymphocyte clones during the immune response. Under conditions in which lymphocytes and other immune cells are responding to inappropriate self or foreign antigens, or in which other abnormalities lead to prolonged activation, the PKB pathway contributes an important survival signal preventing the normal mechanisms by which the immune response is terminated via apoptosis of the activated cell population. There is a considerable amount of evidence demonstrating the expansion of lymphocyte populations responding to self antigens in autoimmune conditions such as multiple sclerosis and arthritis. Expansion of lymphocyte populations responding inappropriately to foreign antigens is a feature of another set of conditions such as allergic responses and asthma. In summary inhibition of PKB could provide a beneficial treatment for immune disorders.
Other examples of inappropriate expansion, growth, proliferation, hyperplasia and survival of normal cells in which PKB may play a role include but are not limited to atherosclerosis, cardiac myopathy and glomerulonephritis.
In addition to the role in cell growth and survival, the PKB pathway functions in the control of glucose metabolism by insulin. Available evidence from mice deficient in the alpha and beta isoforms of PKB suggests that this action is mediated by the beta isoform primarily. As a consequence, modulators of PKB activity may also find utility in diseases in which there is a dysfunction of glucose metabolism and energy storage such as diabetes, metabolic disease and obesity.
Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that phosphorylates a wide range of substrates and is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes including cell growth, cell differentiation, ion-channel conductivity, gene transcription and synaptic release of neurotransmitters. In its inactive form, the PKA holoenzyme is a tetramer comprising two regulatory subunits and two catalytic subunits.
PKA acts as a link between G-protein mediated signal transduction events and the cellular processes that they regulate. Binding of a hormone ligand such as glucagon to a transmembrane receptor activates a receptor-coupled G-protein (GTP-binding and hydrolyzing protein). Upon activation, the alpha subunit of the G protein dissociates and binds to and activates adenylate cyclase, which in turn converts ATP to cyclic-AMP (cAMP). The cAMP thus produced then binds to the regulatory subunits of PKA leading to dissociation of the associated catalytic subunits. The catalytic subunits of PKA, which are inactive when associated with the regulatory sub-units, become active upon dissociation and take part in the phosphorylation of other regulatory proteins.
For example, the catalytic sub-unit of PKA phosphorylates the kinase Phosphorylase Kinase which is involved in the phosphorylation of Phosphorylase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down glycogen to release glucose. PKA is also involved in the regulation of glucose levels by phosphorylating and deactivating glycogen synthase. Thus, modulators of PKA activity (which modulators may increase or decrease PKA activity) may be useful in the treatment or management of diseases in which there is a dysfunction of glucose metabolism and energy storage such as diabetes, metabolic disease and obesity.
PKA has also been established as an acute inhibitor of T cell activation. Anndahl et al, have investigated the possible role of PKA type I in HIV-induced T cell dysfunction on the basis that T cells from HIV-infected patients have increased levels of cAMP and are more sensitive to inhibition by cAMP analogues than are normal T cells. From their studies, they concluded that increased activation of PKA type I may contribute to progressive T cell dysfunction in HIV infection and that PKA type I may therefore be a potential target for immunomodulating therapy.—Aandahl, E. M., Aukrust, P., Skålhegg, B. S., Müller, F., Frøland, S. S., Hansson, V., Taskén, K. Protein kinase A type I antagonist restores immune responses of T cells from HIV-infected patients. FASEB J. 12, 855-862 (1998).
It has also been recognised that mutations in the regulatory sub-unit of PKA can lead to hyperactivation in endocrine tissue.
Because of the diversity and importance of PKA as a messenger in cell regulation, abnormal responses of cAMP can lead to a variety of human diseases derived from this, such as irregular cell growth and proliferation (Stratakis, C. A.; Cho-Chung, Y. S.; Protein Kinase A and human diseases. Trends Endrocri. Metab. 2002, 13, 50-52). Over-expression of PKA has been observed in a variety of human cancer cells including those from ovarian, breast and colon patients. Inhibition of PKA would therefore be an approach to treatment of cancer (Li, Q.; Zhu, G-D.; Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 2002, 2, 939-971).
For a review of the role of PKA in human disease, see for example, Protein Kinase A and Human Disease, Edited by Constantine A. Stratakis, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 968, 2002, ISBN 1-57331-412-9.